Not+Boring+Grammar

Grammar is always the most boring part in language learning, here I am trying to explain in more interesting way.....Hope it will work!!!

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='Grammar' Units = =**Units of grammar in Chinese can be classified as: words, phrase and **= =**sentence, their relationship are displayed in the diagram below. **=

It can be seen that sentences are made up of phrases and words. Let's look at each unit in more detail: //**1. Word - **// **词,** A word is the smallest unit that can be used independently in a sentence. Depending on the syllable numbers a word has, it can be divided into three groups: (Mono)syllabic words: a word that has only one syllable.
 * 词语 **

For example: 蛇 ( snake ), 北 ( north ), 高 ( tall ), 停 ( stop )

(Di)syllabic words: a word that has two syllables.

For example: 北京 ( Beijing ), 美丽 ( beauty ), 长城 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">( Great Wall )

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(Poly)syllabic words: the word that has 3 or more syllables, it includes: Triple: 收音机 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">( radio ), 电视机<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> ( television ), 沙发床 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">( sofa bed ) Quadruple: 广播电台<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> ( radio station ), 共产主义 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">( Communist ) Quintuple and more: 文化大革命 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">( Culture Revolution ), 社区开发计划 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">( Community Development Project) In modern Chinese, more than 70 percent of words are disyllabic words.

//**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">2. Phrase **// - 短语 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A phrase is a combination of two or more words according to certain grammatical rules. For example:

公众卫生<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> ( community health ), 保健食品 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">( health food )

//**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">3. Sentence - **// **句子** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Sentence is a the grammatical unit that is used to express a complete idea. It usually has a certain intonation and a pause at the end. It is the intonation and mood instead of the numbers of syllables that classify sentence from word and phrase. Some words and phrases can make sentences if they are used to express a complete idea and with certain mood and intonation. Same as in English, punctuation symbols like ' ? ' or ' ! ' are used at the end of the sentences in written Chinese to express the pause and different moods. For example:

你好吗？<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">( How do you do? ) 站住！<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">( Halt! ) 我喜欢学中文<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">. ( I like study Chinese. )

=Grammar index=

Stative verbs [[|1]]
A stative verb expresses quality or conditions. In Chinese a stative verb is used where in English one would use the verb ‘to be’ with an adjective. For instance, in 他 很 忙 tā hěn máng //he is very busy// 忙 máng is a stative verb and means //to be busy//.

Possessive 的 de [[|1]]
This construction indicates that the noun after 的 de belongs to the noun that comes before 的 de, as in 小 王 的 邮 票 Xiǎo Wáng de yóupiào //Xiao Wang’s stamp//.

V 一 下 yíxià [[|1]]
When 一 下 yíxià is preceded by a verb, it has two functions. 1. It is used as a time measure to imply that the action lasts for a little while. 2. It is used to soften the tone of voice. (See lesson 6)

The verb 在 zài [[|1]]
When 在 zài is used as the main verb in a sentence, it means //to be located//...; //to be in, on//, or //at// a place, as in 在 这 儿 zài zhèr //to be here//, 他 在 这 儿 tā zài zhèr //he is here//.

The linking verb 是 shì [[|2]]
The linking verb 是 shì is used to link nouns or pronouns, as in 他 是 老 师 tā shì lǎoshī //he is a teacher// and 我 是 学 生 wǒ shì xuésheng //I am a student//. (See lessons 4 and 5)

Co-verbs [[|2]]
This term refers to a verb when its function, used together with its own object, is to modify the main verb of a sentence. An example is 在 zài, which can be used as a co-verb meaning //to be located in, on// or //at// a place. Please note in this context that sequence and background are important in Chinese when it comes to describing actions. The first action in a sequence should come first in an utterance. In 小 丁 在 家 看 书 Xiǎo Dīng zài jiā kàn shū //Xiao Ding is reading a book at home// the first action in the sequence could be described as the background to the main action, but it still has to come first, with the co-verb 在 zài followed by the noun 家 jiā forming a co-verb clause. In the example given here Xiao Ding would have had to be at home before he started reading the book.

The particle 吧 ba [[|2]]
The particle 吧 ba is placed at the end of a sentence to indicate suggestion.

Modal verbs [[|2],[|10]]
Modal verbs are like auxiliary verbs and are placed before main verbs. Examples are: 应 该 yīnggāi //should//, //to be obliged// and 得 děi //to have to//…; 可 以 kěyǐ //to be permitted//; 能 néng //to be able//; 想 xiǎng //to want//, //to intend//; and 爱 ài //to like//, //to be fond of//.

Choice type questions [[|3]]
One type of choice type questions is formed by following an affirmative verb with a negative verb as in: V 不 bù V or V 没 méi V. The following patterns are those most commonly used.
 * **subject** || **verb 不 verb** || **object** ||

nǐ || 是 不 是 shì bu shì || 学 生？ xuésheng || //Are you a student or not//?
 * 你
 * **subject** || **verb object** || **不 verb** ||

nǐ || 作 练 习 zuò liànxí || 不 作？ bu zuò || //Are you going to do the exercises// (//or not//)?
 * 你
 * **subject** || **verb 没** **verb** || **object** ||

nǐ || 作 没 作 zuò méi zuò || 练 习？ liànxí || //Did you do the exercises or not//?
 * 你
 * **subject** || **verb 了 object** || **没 verb** ||

nǐ || 作 了 练 习 zuòle liànxí || 没 作？ méi zuò || //Did you do the exercises// (//or not//)? If a verb has a double syllable it can be used in the following ways:
 * 你
 * **A** || **B** || **不** || **A** || **B** ||

xĭ || 欢 huan || 不 bu || 喜 xĭ || 欢 huan ||
 * 喜


 * **A** || **不** || **A** || **B** ||

xĭ || 不 bu || 喜 xĭ || 欢 huan ||
 * 喜


 * **A** || **B** || **没** || **A** || **B** ||

xué || 习 xí || 没 méi || 学 xué || 习 xí ||
 * 学


 * **A** || **没** || **A** || **B** ||

xué || 没 méi || 学 xué || 习 xí ||
 * 学

Measure words [[|3]]
The word ‘cup’ in a cup of tea and the word ‘bottle’ in a bottle of beer are ‘measure words'. In Chinese a measure word is used when quantifying or specifying a noun. A measure word is preceded by one of the following: a number word; a specifier such as 这 zhè //this//, 那 nà //that//, or 每 měi //every// ; or a question word such as 哪 nă //which//? or 几 jĭ //how many//?

太 tài expresses excessiveness [[|4]]
The affirmative form of the 太 tài construction is 太 tài [stative verb] 了le, which means //extremely// [stative verb] as in 太 好 了 tài hăo le //extremely good//. The negative form is 不 太 bú tài [stative verb] without 了le, which means that something //is not very// [stative verb], as in 不 太 好 bú tài hăo //not very good//.

The question particle 呢 ne [[|4]]
呢 ne is placed at the end of a sentence. It can be used in the following situations: 1. To bounce a question or statement back to the person you are having a conversation with, as in: A: 你 好吗 nĭ hăo ma ? //how are you//? B: 我 很 好. 你 呢 wŏ hěn hăo. nĭ ne ? //I am very well, and you//? 2. To ask the question where? as in 我 的 书 呢 wŏ de shū ne //where is my book//? 3. To reinforce questions formed with a question-word [who? what? which? when? why? where?] and to show that a speaker really wants to know the answer, as in: 他 是 哪 国 人 呢 tā shì nă guó rén ne //what nationality IS he//? 你 看 的 是 什 么 书 呢 nĭ kàn de shì shénme shū ne //what book ARE you reading//? 你 去 哪 儿 呢 nĭ qù năr ne //where ARE you going//?

不是 ... 是 ... búshì … shì … sentence construction [[|4]]
The 不是...是 ... búshì … shì … sentence construction is used to deny one statement and confirm another, as in 不 是 我 的 语 法 不 好, 是 语 法 太 难 了 búshì wǒ de yǔfǎ bù hǎo, shì yǔfǎ tài nán le //it is not that my grammar is weak, it is that the grammar is too difficult//.

Use of 以后 yǐhòu [[|4]]
以 后 yǐhòu is used to form time clauses. So, if 以 后 yǐhòu is placed after a noun or phrase to form a time clause, it defines a time after the action indicated by the noun or predicate, as in: 午 饭 以 后 wǔfàn yǐhòu //after having lunch//. However, if 以 后 yǐhòu is placed at the beginning of a phrase and used as a time word, it means //later//, //in the future//, as in 以 后 我 想 去 中 国 yǐhòu wǒ xiǎng qù Zhōngguó //later/one day I would like to go to China//.

Telling the time [[|4]]
The linking verb 是 shì //to be// is not needed when giving the time or the date: 今 天 星 期 天 jīntiān xīngqī tiān //today is Sunday//. 现 在 两 点 零 五 分 xiànzài liǎng diǎn líng wǔ fēn //it is five past two//. (See lessons 2 and 5)

The adverb 那(么) nà (me) [[|4]]
那 nà is short for 那 么 nà me. If 那 (么) nà (me) is placed at the beginning of a sentence it implies //if this is the case//….

Giving the day, month and/or year [[|5]]
When you ask for the time or the date, 是 shì is omitted, as in: 今 天 几 号 jīntiān jǐ hào //what date is it today//? 今 天 十 五 号 jīntiān shíwǔ hào //today is the 15th//. The 是 shì in 还 是 háishì choice-type questions cannot be omitted. (See lessons 2 and 4)

Topic [[|5]]
The object of a sentence is called a topic if it is placed before the verb. It can be a noun, or a noun-functioned phrase in list form. The subject of a sentence in this pattern can be placed either before the topic or before the verb.

Pronoun or name + 这儿 zhèr or 那儿 nàr [[|5]]
When 这 儿 zhèr and 那 儿 nàr are placed after a pronoun or name, they identify a place associated with that person. 这 儿 zhèr implies that the speaker is actually in the place to which he refers, while 那 儿 nàr implies that the speaker is not in the place to which he refers: 我 那 儿 wǒ nàr //my place// (though I am not in my place as I speak). 我 这 儿 wǒ zhèr //my place// (I am in my place as I speak).

Duplicate verbs [[|6]]
A verb is duplicated to soften the tone of voice, especially when used at the end of a sentence, as in 请 你 给 他 介 绍 介 绍 qǐng nǐ gěi tā jièshaojièshao //please tell him about it//. (See lesson 1)

===Resultative verb phrases [[|6],[|10],[|18]]===

A resultative verb phrase is used to describe the result of an action. It is formed by an action verb and its result, as in 我 吃 完 了 wǒ chī wán le //I finished eating//. The verb is //to eat//, the result of the eating is //finished//, so the resultative verb phrase is //eating to a finish//.

Attributive clause with 的 de [[|6]]
An attributive clause is used to modify a noun preceded by 的 de. The clause can be formed from a word or a phrase, as in 一 个 很 好 的 朋 友 yí ge hěn hǎo de péngyou //a very good friend// and 我 从 小 王 那 儿 借 来 的 书 wǒ cǒng Xiǎo Wáng nàr jiè lái de shū //the book which I borrowed from Xiao Wang//.

Combined directional verb phrase [[|7]]
A combined directional verb phrase is formed from a verb of action with a directional word such as 进 jìn //in//, 出 chū //out//, 上 shàng //up// or 下 xià //down// and is followed by 来 lái or 去 qù (indicating the position of the speaker). 来 lái indicates that the action is moving towards the speaker, and 去 qù indicates that the action is moving away from the speaker, for instance, 走 进 来 zǒu jìn lái //to walk in// (the speaker is inside). A simple object is placed between 进 jìn and 来 lái, as in 走 进 图 书 馆 来 zǒu jìn túshū guǎn lái //to walk into the library//. The object 图 书 馆 túshū guǎn //library// is placed between the directional word and 来 lái or 去 qù.

是 … 的 shì ... de construction [[|7]]
The 是 … 的 shì ... de construction is used to emphasise the state or situation of the noun. The emphasised statement is placed between 是 shì and 的 de, as in 我 的 书 是 新 的 wǒ de shū shì xīn de //my book is the new one//.

Position words [[|7]]
Position words are 前 qián //front//, 后 hòu //back//, 旁 páng //beside//, 右 yòu //to the right//, 左 zuǒ //to the left//, 上 shàng //above//,下 xià //beneath// and 中 zhōng //middle/inside//. These position words can all be followed by 边 biān //side//. The exception is 中 zhōng //middle/inside//, which cannot be used with 边 biān, but instead is used with 间 jiān. When position words are used to describe nouns they are placed after the noun, as in 房 间 里 边 fángjiān lǐ biān //inside the room//.

Complement of degree construction [[|8],[|19]]
A complement of degree construction is used to describe how an action is habitually carried out, as in 他 吃 得 很 快 tā chī de hěn kuài //he eats very fast//. The verb is placed before 得 de, while the elements which follow 得 de are usually adverbs describing the outcome of the action. This construction can also be used to describe a particular action. For example, in 昨 天 晚 上 我 作 饭 作 得 很 好 zuótiān wǎnshang wǒ zuò fàn zuò de hěn hǎo //last night I cooked the meal very well//, 很 好 hěn hǎo describes the outcome of the cooking. (See lessons 19)

Potential verb phrases [[|8],[|20]]
A potential verb phrase is used to indicate that an action can or cannot be achieved. It is formed from a verb of action with 得 de [for affirmative] or 不 bù [for negative] and is followed by a resultative or directional word, as in 吃 得 完 chī de wán //to be able to finish eating//. 走 不 进 去 zǒu bu jìn qù //to be unable to walk in//. Most resultative or directional verb phrases can be turned into potential verb phrases by inserting 得 de or 不 bù between the verb and its resultative or directional word. But some potential verb phrases such as 对 不 起 duì bù qǐ are only used as idiomatic expressions.

可 kě [[|8]]
可 kě can be used as an adverb to reinforce a statement or to emphasise desires and feelings. 可 kě can precede the linking verb 是 shì as in 小 王 可 是 一个 大 忙 人 Xiǎo Wǎng kě shì yí ge dà máng rén //Xiao Wang is a really busy person//. A stative verb such as 好 hǎo //good// or 忙 máng //busy//, or a modal verb such as 想 xiǎng //intend to// … or 喜 欢 xǐhuan //like to//.. can be placed between 可…了 kě ...le to form an affirmative construction. The negative form is 可 不… kě bù, but 了 le is not used, for instance, 今 天 可 冷 了 jīntiān kě lěng le //today is really cold.// 我 可 想 去 中 国 了 wǒ kě xiǎng qù Zhōngguó le //I really want to go to China.// 我 可 不 喜 欢 吃 英 国 菜 wǒ kě bù xǐhuan chī Yīngguó cài //I really don’t like eating English food//.

The conditional construction with 要是...就... yàoshi…jiù... [[|8]]
The 要 是... 就... yàoshi…jiù... construction is used to form a conditional sentence. The condition is placed after the 要 是 yàoshi clause, and the consequence is placed after 就 jiù.

Use of the 正 在 V 着 O 呢 zhènzài V zhe O ne sentence pattern [[|9]]
This sentence pattern indicates that an action is under way. Note that some of the elements of this pattern can be omitted: all the following sentences mean //he is watching TV//. 1. 他 正 在 看 着 电 视 呢 tā zhèngzài kànzhe diànshì ne full version 2. 他 正 看 着 电 视 呢 tā zhèng kànzhe diànshì ne without 在 zài 3. 他 在 看 着 电 视 呢 tā zài kànzhe diànshì ne without 正 zhèng 4. 他 正 在 看 电 视 呢 tā zhèngzài kàn diànshì ne without 着 zhe 5. 他 正 在 看 着 电 视 tā zhèngzài kànzhe diànshì without 呢 ne 6. 他 在 看 电 视 呢 tā zài kàn diànshì ne without 正 zhèng and 着 zhe 7. 他 看 电 视 呢 tā kàn diànshì ne without 正 zhèng, 在 zài and 着 zhe (See lesson 16)

===Aspectual marker 了 le with verbs [[|10],[|11],[|14]]===

When placed after the main verb of a sentence the aspectual marker 了le is used to indicate that an action has been completed, as in 我 买 了 一 辆 自 行 车 wǒ mǎile yí liàng zì xíng chē //I bought a bike//. The aspectual marker 了 le is not used in the following situations: 1. The aspectual marker 了le is not used in the negative form, but instead 没 (有) méi(yǒu) is placed before the main verb. 我 没 买 新 车, 可 是 我 买 了 一 辆 旧 车 wǒ méi mǎi xīn chē, kěshì wǒ mǎile yí liàng jiù chē //I didn’t buy a new bike, but I bought an old one//. 2. When 是 shì //to be//, 在 zài //to be in// or 有 yǒu //to have// are used as the main verbs of a sentence, the aspectual marker 了le is not used with them. 去 年 我 有 一 辆 很 好 的 车 qùnián wǒ yǒu yí liàng hěn hǎo de chē //last year I had a very good bike//. 3. If a sentence contains a modal verb, the aspectual marker 了 le is not used. 去 年 我 想 买 一辆 车 qùnián wǒ xiǎng mǎi yí liàng chē //last year I wanted to buy a bike//. 4. The aspectual marker 了 le is not used in the ‘complement of degree’ construction. 昨 晚 他 饭 作 得 很 好 zuó wǎn tā fàn zuò de hěn hǎo //last night he cooked very well//. 5. The aspectual marker 了 le is not used for those verbs which indicate direct and indirect speech. 他 上 个 月 说 要 来 看 我 tā shàng ge yuè shuō yào lái kàn wǒ //he said last month that he would visit me//. 6. The aspectual marker 了 le is not used in attributive clauses. 我 昨 天 买 的 车 wǒ zuótiān mǎi de chē //the bike which I bought yesterday//.

The modal particle了 le implying change of situation [[|11]]
了 le can be placed at the end of a sentence to imply a change of situation or to imply that something is no longer in the same state as it was. 我 不 是 老 师 了 wǒ bú shì lǎoshī le //I am no longer a teacher//. 夏 天 了 xiàtiān le //it’s summer now//. 他 好 多 了 tā hǎo duō le //he is much better now//.

Imminent actions [[|12]]
The following sentence patterns are used to indicate that an action is about to take place or that a particular time is approaching. 1. 要 … 了 yào…le 2. 快 要 … 了 kuàiyào…le 3. 就 要 … 了 jiùyào…le Elements which can be placed between 要 yào le and 了 le are: V-O patterns; and time words such as 三 月 sānyuè //March//, 春 天 chūntiān //spring//, 中 午 zhōngwǔ //noon// and 两点 liǎng diǎn //2 o’clock//.

The adverbial marker 地 de [[|12]]
The adverbs or phrases which are placed before 地 de describe the intention, manner or method with, in or by which an action is carried out, as in 她 高 兴 地 唱 了 一 个 歌 tā gāoxìng de chàngle yí ge gē //she happily sang a song//. 学 生 们 都 一 个 一 个 地 回 家 了 xuésheng men dōu yí ge yí ge de huí jiā le //the students went home one by one//.

V 着 zhe O [[|12]]
The V 着 zhe O pattern can be used in the following two situations: 1. It is used to describe how something has been left, as in 桌 上 放 着 一 本 书 zhuō shàng fàngzhe yì běn shū //there is a book left on the table//; 墙 上 写 着 三 个 字 qiáng shàng xiězhe sān ge zì //there are three characters written on the wall//; 门 开 着 mén kāizhe //the door has been left open//. 2. It can also be used to make this action simultaneous with the main verb in the sentence, as in 她 唱 着 歌 回 家 tā chàngzhe gē huí jiā //she went home singing//.

Time measures [[|13]]
A time measure quantifies duration or length of time. A time measure is placed after the verb in an affirmative sentence, as in 我 学 汉 语 学 了 两 个 月 了 wǒ xué hànyǔ xué le liǎng ge yuè le //I have been learning Chinese for two months//. 了 le at the end of the sentence marks a stage in a progressing action. When describing a future action the time measure is placed after the verb, as in 明 年 我 要 在 北 京 学 习 三 个 月 汉 语 míngnián wǒ yào zài Běijīng xuéxí sān ge yuè hànyǔ //I will study three weeks of Chinese in Beijing next spring//. The following three sentence patterns for //I learnt Chinese for three years// are all acceptable. 1.
 * **s** || **v** || **o** || **v (<span style="font-family: 宋体;">了 ) tm** ||

wǒ || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">学 xué || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">汉 语 hànyǔ || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">学 了 三 年 xué le sān nián || 2.
 * <span style="font-family: 宋体;">我
 * **s** || **o** || **v (<span style="font-family: 宋体;">了 ) tm** ||

wǒ || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">汉 语 hànyǔ || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">学 了 三 年 xué le sān nián || 3.
 * <span style="font-family: 宋体;">我
 * **s** || **v (<span style="font-family: 宋体;">了 ) tm <span style="font-family: 宋体;">的 ** || **o** ||

wǒ || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">学 了 三 年 的 xué le sān nián de || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">汉 语 hànyǔ || A time measure is placed near the beginning of a negative sentence, as in 我 三 年 没 看 见 她 了 wǒ sān nián méi kànjiàn tā le //I haven’t seen her for three years//. The 了 le at the end of the sentence marks a stage in a continuing situation.
 * <span style="font-family: 宋体;">我

The particle 过 guo [[|14]]
The particle 过 guo is placed after a verb and is used in the following two situations. 1. It is used to indicate that a particular action has been experienced, as in 我 吃 过 英 国 菜 wǒ chīguo Yīngguó cài //I have eaten English food//. 2. It can also to be used to indicate that a regular action such as the daily eating of a meal has been completed, as in 你 吃 过 饭 吗 nǐ chīguo fàn ma //have you eaten//?

The action measure [[|14]]
次 cì is used as an action measure in sentences. Like time measures, an action measure is placed after the verb in an affirmative sentence and before the verb in a negative sentence, as in 我 去 过 一 次 中 国 wǒ qùguo yí cì Zhōngguó //I have been to China once//.

在 zài used in a resultative verb phrase [[|15]]
在 zài can be used as a verb or co-verb. It can also be placed after a verb of action to form a resultative verb phrase, so that the action has a direct effect on the object. For instance, in 放 在 桌 上 fàng zài zhuō shàng //to put// (//it//) //on the table//, the item is on the table as a result of the action //to put//. However, in 在 中 国 学 习 zài Zhōngguó xuéxí //to study in China// the action //to study// does not have a direct effect on China, meaning that 在 中 国 zài Zhōngguó //to be in China// is a co-verb clause which gives the background to an action and/or indicates the sequence of action.

Use of the 正 在 V 着 O 呢 zhènzài V zhe O ne sentence pattern [[|16],[|9]]
This sentence pattern indicates that an action is under way. Note that some of the elements of this pattern can be omitted: all the following sentences mean //he is watching TV//. 1. 他 正 在 看 着 电 视 呢 tā zhènzài kànzhe diànshì ne full version 2. 他 正 看 着 电 视 呢 tā zhèng kànzhe diànshì ne without 在 zài 3. 他 在 看 着 电 视 呢 tā zài kànzhe diànshì ne without 正 zhèng 4. 他 正 在 看 电 视 呢 tā zhèngzài kàn diànshì ne without 着 zhe 5. 他 正 在 看 着 电 视 tā zhèngzài kànzhe diànshì without 呢 ne 6. 他 在 看 电 视 呢 tā zài kàn diànshì ne without 正 zhèng and 着 zhe 7. 他 看 电 视 呢 tā kàn diànshì ne without 正 zhèng, 在 zài and 着 zhe (See lesson 9)

V 着 zhe O [[|16],[|12]]
The V 着 zhe O pattern can be used in the following two situations: 1. It is used to describe how something has been left, as in 桌 上 放 着 一 本 书 zhuō shàng fàngzhe yì běn shū //there is a book left on the table//; 墙 上 写 着 三 个 字 qiáng shàng xiězhe sān ge zì //there are three characters written on the wall//; 门 开 着 mén kāizhe //the door has been left open//. 2. It can also be used to make this action simultaneous with the main verb in the sentence, as in 她 唱 着 歌 回 家 tā chàngzhe gē huí jiā //she went home singing//.

Comparatives [[|17]]
The following constructions are used to compare one item or action with another. 1. The 比construction is used to indicate whether A is better or worse than B.
 * **A** || **<span style="font-family: 宋体;">比 ** || **B** || **(stative) verb + quantity** ||

tā || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">比 bǐ || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">我 wǒ || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">大 两岁 dà liǎng suì || //He is// (//two years//) //older than me//.
 * <span style="font-family: 宋体;">他
 * **A** || **<span style="font-family: 宋体;">比 ** || **B** || **complement of degree + <span style="font-family: 宋体;">多 了 ** ||

tā || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">比 bǐ || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">我 wǒ || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">吃 得 多 [<span style="font-family: 宋体;">多 了 ] chī de duō [duō le] || //He eats// (//much//) //more than I do//.
 * <span style="font-family: 宋体;">他

2. The …跟…一 样 … gēn...yíyàng construction indicates that A is in the same state as B.
 * **A** || **(<span style="font-family: 宋体;">不 ) <span style="font-family: 宋体;">跟 ** || **B** || **(<span style="font-family: 宋体;">不 ) <span style="font-family: 宋体;">一 样 stative verb** ||

tā || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">跟 gēn || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">我 wǒ || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">一 样 大 yíyàng dà || //He and I are the same age//.
 * <span style="font-family: 宋体;">他
 * **A** || **<span style="font-family: 宋体;">跟 ** || **B** || **complement of degree (<span style="font-family: 宋体;">不 ) <span style="font-family: 宋体;">一 样 ** ||

tā || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">跟 gēn || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">我 wǒ || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">吃 得 一 样 多 chī de yíyàng duō || //He and I eat the same amount//. 3. The 有 construction implies that A is as [stative verb] as B.
 * <span style="font-family: 宋体;">他
 * **A** || **(<span style="font-family: 宋体;">没 ) <span style="font-family: 宋体;">有 ** || **B** || **stative verb** ||

tā || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">有 yǒu || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">我 wǒ || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">大 吗 ? dà ma || //Is he as old as me//?
 * <span style="font-family: 宋体;">他
 * **A** || **(<span style="font-family: 宋体;">没 ) <span style="font-family: 宋体;">有 ** || **B** || **complement of degree** ||

tā || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">有 yǒu || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">我 wǒ || <span style="font-family: 宋体;">吃 得 多 吗 ? chī de duō ma || //Does he eat as much as I do//?
 * <span style="font-family: 宋体;">他

是 … 的 shì ... de construction [[|17],[|7]]
The 是 … 的 shì ... de construction is used to emphasise the state or situation of the noun. The emphasised statement is placed between 是 shì and 的 de, as in 我 的 书 是 新 的 wǒ de shū shì xīn de //my book is the new one//. (See lesson 7)

Word order in Chinese corresponds to the sequence of action. [[|18]]
1. Sentence with a co-verb clause 坐 车 去 学 校 zuò chē qù xuéxiào ( //I) go to school by car//. The action of sitting in a car happens before going to school, so 坐 车 zuò chē is placed before 去 学 校 qù xuéxiào. 2. Sentence with a complement of degree construction 房 间 打 扫 得 干 干 净 净 fángjiān dǎsǎo de gāngānjìngjìng //the room// [//has been cleaned so that it//] //is spotless//. The outcome of the cleaning is that the room is spotless, so 干 干 净 净 gāngānjìngjìng is placed after 打 扫 得 dǎsǎo de. 3. Sentence with an adverbial marker 地 de 他 一 句 一 句 地 说 tā yíjùyíjù de shuō //he said it sentence by sentence//. //Sentence by sentence// is the manner in which he said what he had to say, so 一 句 一 句地 yíjùyíjù de is placed before 说 shuō. 4. Sentence with a resultative verb phrase 我 看 懂 了 wǒ kàn dǒng le //I have understood it// [//by reading//]//.// I understood it because I read it first, so 看 kàn should be placed before 懂 dǒng.

Complement of degree construction [[|19],[|8]]
A complement of degree construction is used to describe how an action is habitually carried out, as in 他 吃 得 很 快 tā chī de hěn kuài //he eats very fast//. The verb is placed before 得 de, while the elements which follow 得 de are usually adverbs describing the outcome of the action. This construction can also be used to describe a particular action. For example, in 昨 天 晚 上 我 作 饭 作 得 很 好 zuótiān wǎnshang wǒ zuò fàn zuò de hěn hǎo //last night I cooked the meal very well//, 很 好 hěn hǎo describes the outcome of the cooking. (See lessons 8)

Potential verb phrases [[|20],[|8]]
A potential verb phrase is used to indicate that an action can or cannot be achieved. It is formed from a verb of action with 得 de [for affirmative] or 不 bù [for negative] and is followed by a resultative or directional word, as in 吃 得 完 chī de wán //to be able to finish eating//. 走 不 进 去 zǒu bu jìn qù //to be unable to walk in//. Most resultative or directional verb phrases can be turned into potential verb phrases by inserting 得 de or 不 bù between the verb and its resultative or directional word. But some potential verb phrases such as 对 不 起 duì bù qǐ are only used as idiomatic expressions. (See lesson 8)

The 把 bǎ construction [[|21]]
The 把 bǎ construction is used to indicate what one does to a particular object, or how one does it. Verbs used in the 把 bǎ construction take complex forms, and are verbs of action attached to resultative words, directional words or other elements. The attached elements refer to the direct object of the sentence. For instance, in 我 把 酒 喝 完了 wǒ bǎ jiǔ hē wán le //I finished the wine// the resultative word finish refers to the wine, but not to the action of drinking. //I finished drinking// would be expressed by the simple utterance 我 喝 完 酒 了 wǒ hē wán jiǔ le.

Passive construction with 被 bèi [[|22]]
The passive construction with 被 bèi indicates how a particular object (abstract or physical) is dealt with or disposed of by somebody or something. The verbs in these constructions take complicated forms. They are verbs of method of action, plus other elements. Most of the elements that are attached to the main verbs in 被 bèi sentences are similar to those used in the 把 bǎ construction. For instance, 书 已 经 被 他 借 走 了 shū yǐjīng bèi tā jiè zǒu le //the book has been borrowed by him//. In 把 bǎ sentences this will be 他 已 经 把 书 借 走 了 tā yǐjīng bǎ shū jiè zǒu le //he has already borrowed the book//.